Determinants Of Foreign Direct Investment In Pakistan - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3296 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Overview Globalization which gave birth to the concept of interdependence of countries and their economies is defined as the process through which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated with the assistance of global network of trade, communication and transportation. This allowed the investors to invest or transfer their capital where ever they wanted which introduced the concept of Foreign Direct Investment. Issues: Since the recent financial crisis in Asia and Latin America, developing as well as newly industrialized countries have been advised to rely mainly on FDI for economic development and to supplement national savings by capital inflows. Developing countries in particular are in need of investment for their development and the investment amount in majority of cases is greater than the capital internally available. Therefore, FDI has emerged as most important source of generating capital required for development of emerging countries. Currently Foreign Direct Investment has become one of the major sources of economic development, modernization, employment, income growth, capital generation and a channel for the transfer and access to advance technologies as well as organizational and managerial skills. Recognizing this fact, developing countries try their level best to attract as much as of FDI as they can. But attracting FDI is not that much simple, it requires huge efforts on the part o f policy makers and government. Variety of factors is considered by an investor before making investment in a particular country. Those are labeled as determinants of FDI, and may vary from country to country. Pakistan is currently facing a huge shortfall of capital to finance its major development projects and to run the government operations smoothly. The country requires capital to fulfill the growing needs in defense, infrastructure, education and many other areas of critical importance to development. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Determinants Of Foreign Direct Investment In Pakistan" essay for you Create order 1.2 Problem statement The objective of this research is to identify the major determinants of the aggregate Inward FDI flow to Pakistan. 1.3 Hypothesis The research primarily focused on testing the following mentioned hypothesis: H1: Wage has negative impact on FDI. H2: GDP has positive impact on FDI. H3: Infrastructure expenditure has positive impact on FDI. H4: Taxes has negative impact on FDI. H5: Inflation has negative impact on FDI. H6: GDP per capita growth has positive impact on FDI. H7: Exchange rate has positive impact on FDI. H8: Interest rate has negative impact on FDI. 1.4 Outline of the Study 1.5 Definitions Users: This research will be useful for the national policymakers and government of Pakistan; it will allow them to improve the weak points present in the economy which discourage the FDI inflows to the country. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW A lot of research has already been conducted in the field of identifying the best determinants of Foreign Direct Investment by various researchers. Most of the research work conducted implies that the determinants of Foreign Direct Investment vary from country to country and from location to location. The purpose of this research is to find out the impact of Labor cost (Wage), Inflation (I),Interest rate (IR), Exchange rate (ER), Infrastructure expenditure (IE), Taxes (T), GDP and GDP per capita growth (GDPG) on Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflow in Pakistan. The study hypothesizes positive relationship between GDP, GDP per capita growth, Infrastructure expenditure and Exchange rate with FDI whereas Wage, inflation, Taxes and Interest rate relate negatively with FDI. Pursuing the same objectives Kok and Ersoy (2009) conducted study that made attempt to investigate the best determinants of FDI in developing countries. Study hypothesized and concluded that GDP, inflation, Trade, Gross capital formation, GDP per capita growth and communication (telephone) are positively related with FDI whereas inflation and total debt/ GDP had negative relationship. Barrel and Pain (1996) in their empirical studies found that FDI and both the acceleration and level of GNP were positively related. In addition unit labor cost and relative capital cost also had positive relationship with outward direct investment. Barrel and Pain et al suggest that in short run funds availability affects investment timing. This research is very much related to mine because it tried to identify the role played by demand and relative factor prices, both at home and abroad, and exchange rate expectations in determining the total level of foreign direct investment (FDI) by United States c ompanies. According to Janeba (2002) investment costs and government credibility has significant impact on the level of inward foreign direct investment, suggesting that MNCs would prefer to invest in politically stable countries. The research also concluded that when any politically unstable country has cost advantage over other countries MNC will invest efficient amount in that particular country and will hold excess capacity elsewhere. According to the Conventional wisdom lack of government commitment deters foreign investment in developing countries. Since countries differ in production costs and government credibility, this article explains the pattern of investment in a politically risky world. The research work done by Harvey (1990) focused on the macroeconomic determinants of FDI in addition to variables relating to different industry groups and tries to identify the impact of these variables on the inward FDI flow of the recipient country and suggested that Exchange rate an d Sales to have significant impact on the foreign direct investment, whereas taxes did not have any significant role in explaining foreign direct investment. Following bit different framework research conducted by Rolfe, Ricks, Pointer and McCarthy (1993) made an attempt to check investorsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ investment decision on the basis of various investment incentives provided by countries in the Caribbean region. The study demonstrates that all inducements do not evenly plea to all investors. The investment characteristics would determine which incentives firm manager will prefer. According to the study incentives preferred by export firms differ from local market-oriented firms, firms starting operations in a new country have different incentive preferences than do firms interested in expanding or acquiring existing operations, incentive preferences sometimes differ by country of investment, incentives differ depending upon the products produced, large investors prefer different incentives than those preferred by smaller firms and incentive preferences can differ from year to year. In short the research concluded that incentive pref erences are a function of the type of investment, the countries involved, the market orientation of the investor, the type of product, the size of the investment, and the investment year. Terpstra and Yu (1988) tried to examine the impact of firm-specific advantages and locational factors on the foreign investment made by advertising agencies of U.S study focused on impact of host country market size, host country geographic proximity, firm size, firms international operations experience, oligopolistic reaction, and presence of home country customers abroad on FDI. The research depicted that U.S. advertising agencies prefer to invest in those foreign countries having large market size, did not discriminated countries on the basis of their geographic location, inclined to enter foreign market with bigger firm size, tended international expansion with increasing understanding of international operations, reacted oligopolistically while making foreign investment and followed client firms belonging to home country while going abroad. Additionally research found that oligopolistic reaction had stronger impact in 1984 compared to 1972, intensity of competition had significa nt impact on oligopolistic reaction and top agencies witnessed stronger impact of oligopolistic reaction. Study uses macroeconomic variables but more emphasis was given to various ratios relating to capital and labor, it also used à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The Heckscher-Ohlin Theoryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? which states that a country exports those commodities that intensively use the countrys relatively abundant factors and imports those goods using its scarce factors intensively. Results indicated that countries like U.S. imported goods whose production required higher capital to labor ratio than the goods exported and when the endowment ratio of capital/labor increased the ratio of capital for each worker in import-competing production to capital for each worker in export production declined (Baldwin 1979). Gopinath and Echeverria (2004) examined the relationship between foreign direct investment (FDI) and trade in a bilateral context, that is, home (source) countrys exports and FDI to a host (recipient) country are analyzed using a gravity-model approach. Results suggested that physical distance had negati ve impact on trade-FDI ratio, this caused nations to switch from export to FDI based manufacturing. Research also found GDP per capita to affect trade-FDI ratio positively and institutional quality strongly encouraged FDI, additionally FDI was also encouraged by regional trading agreements. The empirical study conducted by Goldberg and Kolstad (1995) stated that exchange rate instability contributed to production internationalization without depressing economic activity in the home country. Furthermore, exchange rate instability stimulated the share of investment activity located on foreign country. Exchange rate volatility did not have statistically different effects on investment shares when one distinguishes between periods where real or monetary shocks dominate exchange rate activity. Yin (1999) studied the effects of tax incentives on the structure of a domestic industry in terms of price, output, profit, and entry/exit, taking account of technology transfer through FDI. The study found that if the government of the host country provides more tax relief for foreign firms, it will raise total output and reduce price index which will encourage more foreign firms to enter the industry while certain existing host firms will have to exit. Research also suggested that government should be cautious in decreasing rate of taxes to attract FDI. Vita and Kyaw (2008) used empirically tractable structural VAR model of the determinants of capital flows and variance decomposition and impulse response analyses to investigate the temporal dynamic effects of shocks to push and pull factors on foreign direct investment and portfolio flows. Study suggested that variation in real variables representing economic activity for example domestic productivity and foreign output possess more power in explaining variability in investment flows to developing nations. This research developed structural VAR model to test relative importance of the determinants of disaggregated investment flows to developing countries. The study investigated the degree to which deviations in foreign direct investment and portfolio flows are caused by variety of push and pull factors across different time horizons. Chen, Chen and Ku (2004) analyzed the pattern of local linkages in foreign direct investment (FDI), treating such local linkages as an investment in local relationships research found that Taiwanese investors in the US are more active in the search of local linkages compared to counterparts in China and Southeast Asia. Research found investors in a producer-driven network are more active in building local linkages than their counterparts in a buyer-driven network. In addition large firms are more active than small firms in pursuing local linkages because of their larger capacity to absorb the risks involved in network integration and their ability to apply relational capital on a larger volume of exchanges. Entry mode also makes a difference to local linkage: FDI taking the form of a joint venture leads to more local linkages than FDI in the form of a wholly owned subsidiary. Amongst the various local linkages, employment of local workers is always the priority undertaking, followed by linkages to local suppliers, local subcontractors and local RD capabilities. Studying the impact of FDI on aspects of domestic economies, including international trade, gross fixed capital formation (GFCF), employment, productivity, the balance of payments and overall welfare Hejazi and Pauly (2003) found that FDI was motivated by market access and factor price differences, and on the role of intra-firm trade. According to the research prediction of whether growth in outward FDI will increase or decrease domestic GFCF is not possible. Therefore, comparisons of such growth relative to growth in inward FDI can be a misleading indicator for policy makers. Since the impact of FDI on domestic GFCF depends on the underlying motivation for investment, and not simply on the growth in outward relative to inward FDI, the results are of interest to all countries. The implication of results stated that rapid growth in outward FDI, relative to inward growth, should not be considered as a negative development, and may reflect success. Chen (1996) suggested that potential for market share extension (MARKET) affects FDI, labor cost (WAGE) does not affect FDI, foreign investors seem to have taken advantage of the western regionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s mineral and energy resource abundance regardless of its lower allocative efficiency, interregional railroad connections are important in the foreign investorsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ locational choice and foreign investors may not locate near innovative domestic Chinese industries in the eastern and middle regions. The significance of the results obtained is that, the location of FDI seems to have been influenced by the existence of good transportation linkages, technological filtering and, to some extent, by the potential for market-share extension. Locational choice does not seem to have been influenced by consideration of labour cost differences or differences in allocative efficiency. According to the neoclassical growth model, labor growth and technological progress are considered as exogenous, inward Foreign Direct Investment(FDI) will lead to increase in the investment rate and which will ultimately lead to increase in the growth of per capita income but the growth effect will not last in the long run (Hsiao and Hsiao, 2006). Papanek (1973) showed significant negative impacts of different types of capital on national savings. Grounded on a sample of 85emerging countries, Papanek found that foreign capital displaced domestic savings. Precisely, the research exhibited that foreign aid, private investment and other capital crowded out national savings, and a reduction in domestic savings could lead to further increase on the dependency on foreign capital. The empirical studies of Cushman (1985) based U.S. bilateral FDI outflow and inflow data concluded that exchange rate variability had positive relation with set of flows. Connor (1983) conducted research which focused on inward as well as outward flow of FDI. The study divided country specific advantages into three categories FDI Probability, FDI Propensity and FDI Penetration and their impact on FDI. Larudee and Koechlin (1999) research focuses on the wages or labor costs and productivity in terms of production costs as the determinants of FDI. This research uses sweatshop labor argument which relies implicitly on the simplistic trade theory assumption that all firms in a country have access to the same technology. But both MNE theory and abundant evidence assert the contrary: an MNE affiliate derives its labor productivity in significant measure from the firm-specific advantages it brings with it. The differential between source and host country in average manufacturing wage should therefore be an independent determinant of FDI flows. CHAPTER 3: PROPOSED METHODOLOGY 3.1 Method of Data Collection The secondary data necessarily required to perform the research was gathered from the official sites of The World Bank and The State Bank of Pakistan. Additionally, some of the required data was abstracted from the book Statistical Supplement and Yearly Book both being published under the supervision of State Bank of Pakistan. 3.2 Sample Size The data used for the purpose of research was 30 years annual data of the variables used in research. Data of all the variables belonged to period starting from fiscal year 1980 to fiscal year 2010. 3.4 Research Model developed FDI= ÃŽÂ ± + ÃŽÂ ²0GDP + ÃŽÂ ²1GDPG à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" ÃŽÂ ²2Wage- ÃŽÂ ²3I + ÃŽÂ ²4ER + ÃŽÂ ²5IE à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" ÃŽÂ ²6T à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" ÃŽÂ ²7IR +  µ Where FDI = Net amount of Foreign Direct Investment received by Pakistan Wage = Annual wages paid to a worker, I = Inflation, IR = Interest rate, ER = Exchange rate (ER), IE = Infrastructure expenditure, T = Taxes, GDP, GDPG = GDP per capita growth rate. 3.3 Statistical Technique Multiple Regression was the statistical technique which was applied to test the hypothesis developed in research. This technique was applied because both the dependent variable and independent variables were scale and under this situation the prediction power of regression analysis is stronger as compared with the other statistical techniques available. CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 4.1 Findings and Interpretation of the results The results drawn by applying Multiple Regression analysis were as follows: Table: 4.1 ANOVA Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 2.524E39 4 6.310E38 1426.142 .000a Residual 1.106E37 25 4.424E35 Total 2.535E39 29 The Anova table explains the model fit, the F-test is statistically significant, which means that the model is statistically significant, as the sig. value in the Anova table is less than .05 therefore the model fit is good and regression can be applied on the data. Table: 4.2 Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson 1 .998a .996 .995 6.65146E17 2.744 The model summary table explains what amount of variance in the dependent variable is explained by the independent variables. The value of R-square is .996 which means that approximately 99.6 % of the variance of SQDFDI is accounted for by the model and only .04 % of the variance remains unexplained. Independent variables were square of Infrastructure Expenditure (PSDP Fund), Interest Rate (IR), Inflation (I) and Exchange Rate (ER) and the dependent variable was Square of Net Foreign Direct Investment (SQDFDI). Table: 4.3 Coefficients Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. Collinearity Statistics B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF 1 (Constant) -9.595E17 7.703E17 -1.246 .224 Inflation -8.806E16 3.960E16 -.037 -2.224 .035 .640 1.562 Interest Rate 2.047E17 6.261E16 .045 3.270 .003 .920 1.086 Exchange rate -5.646E16 9.021E15 -.125 -6.259 .000 .440 2.273 IE 1.654E8 3349513.619 1.094 49.392 .000 .356 2.809 The co-efficients table shows the significance of individual independent variable in explaining the dependent variable. In the final model square of Infrastructure Expenditure (PSDP Fund), Interest Rate (IR), Inflation (I) and Exchange Rate (ER) were the statistically significant variables. The effect of Inflation (b= -8.806, p=.035) is significant and its coefficient is negative indicating that the greater the inflation rate, the lower the Foreign Direct Investment. The value of beta indicates that 1 unit increase in inflation will decrease FDI by 8.806 units. Similarly, the effect of Interest Rate (b= 2.047, p=.003) is significant and its coefficient is positive indicating that the greater the value of interest rate, the higher the amount of FDI received. The value of beta indicates that 1 unit increase in interest rate will increase FDI by 2.047 units. Next, the effect of Exchange Rate (b= -5.646, p=.000) is significant and its coefficient is negative indicating that the greater t he exchange rate, the lower the amount of FDI. The value of beta indicates that 1 unit increase in exchange rate will decrease FDI by 5.646 units. Finally, the effect of Infrastructure Expenditure (b= 1.654, p=.000) is significant and its coefficient is positive indicating that the greater the amount spent by government on infrastructure, the higher the amount of FDI the country will receive. The value of beta indicates that 1 unit increase in amount of infrastructure expenditure will lead to an increase of 1.654 units in FDI. Empirical Model Developed FDI = 1.654 Infrastructure Expenditure + 2.047 Interest Rate 5.646 Exchange Rate 8.806 Inflation 4.2 Hypothesis Assessment Summary H. # Hypothesis ÃŽÂ ² Sig. Result H1 Wage has negative impact on FDI Nil H2 GDP has positive impact on FDI H3 Infrastructure expenditure has positive impact on FDI 1.654 .000 Accept H4 Taxes has negative impact on FDI H5 Inflation has negative impact on FDI -8.806 .035 Accept H6 GDP per capita growth has positive impact on FDI H7 Exchange rate has positive impact on FDI -5.646 .000 Reject H8 Interest rate has negative impact on FDI 2.04 .003 Reject CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH 5.1 Conclusion Foreign direct invest being the most important factor in the development of developing countries likewise Pakistan. From recent years there has been great fight going on among LDCà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s from all over the world to attract higher amount of FDI to fuel their economic growth. This research was intended to find out the impact of macroeconomic variables including GDP, GDP per capita growth rate, Interest rate, Inflation rate, Wage rate, Exchange rate, Tax rate and Infrastructure expenditure (PSDP fund) on the inflow of Foreign Direct Investment in Pakistan. The relationship between wage rate (W) and FDI could not be established because insufficient data was available on the annual wage rate in the country. GDP, GDP per capita growth rate and Tax rate were statistically insignificant in contributing in the final model. The most significant variables in the model were Inflation rate and Exchange rate; both had negative relation with FDI inflow having beta of -8.806 and -5.646 re spectively. Interest rate and Infrastructure expenditure (PSDP fund) were positively related with FDI inflow having beta of 2.047 and 1.654 respectively. 5.2 Discussion 5.3 Implications and Recommendations 5.4 Future Research

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Starting with the vision he never lost - of the London skyline marked by a grand dome landmark - he endured the problems of building

A Small Place Free Essays

Jamaica Kincaid’s A Small Place focuses on her cynical views toward politics, poverty and tourism in Antigua. Kincaid begins by telling the readers about the island’s natural beauty: the sunny sky and warm weather, and the picturesque nature.  Ã‚   She then, encourages the reader to look beneath the island’s beauty to discover and get to know the real state of the people and their culture. We will write a custom essay sample on A Small Place or any similar topic only for you Order Now The reader is addressed as you all throughout the book.   Kincaid would like the reader to understand the people’s poverty and their culture, which is highly influenced by the English colonizers, and the political system riddled with corruption.   She challenges the reader to look beyond the natural beauty of the island to discover and acknowledge its ugly side.   All throughout the book, the author’s opinions, views, criticisms and comments regarding these three issues are apparent. The author’s narrative is laced with bitterness and sarcasm, particularly when relating about the island’s colonial pasta and the present’s dependence on tourism as a source of income.   Kincaid’s tone changes when she recalls memories that are precious to her as a child.   But predominantly, she writes with indignation. This paper will discuss Kincaid’s narrative and criticism against tourism, poverty, and politics through the book’s content, setting, theme, major characters, and symbolism. Content A Small Place is not strictly divided into titled sections.   Instead, there are four untitled sections that tackle different aspects.   In the first section, the narration was about being a hypothetical tourist in Antigua, the author’s birthplace.   Antigua is then described as an island of great, natural beauty. As a tourist, you only see the beautiful sights and the positive aspects of the people and the island.   You don’t program your mind to think of the natives other than the usual warm and welcoming hosts, and as the people to serve your needs. The narrative in this section is laced with insider knowledge, often about the harsh reality that a tourist doesn’t see.   These include the poverty of the people, the corruption and unlawful activities of some of the islands mansion owners who Kincaid claims are drug lords, and references to why most of the cars in the island are Japanese made.   This section ends at the hotel and the author’s opinion about a tourist’s moral ugliness. In the next chapter, the author brings back memories of the â€Å"old† island, which she described as a colony of Great Britain.   The author highlights the racism in the island and how the locals loved the English culture.   One of this section’s main points is the author’s derision against the fuss the people made over Princess Margaret’s visit when Kincaid was just a child. The colonial mentality of the Antiguans was criticized.   For the Antiguans, the author says, bad behavior is not bad so long as it was an Englishman who committed it.   At the end of the section, the author relates colonialism to the present impoverished state of Antigua. It was in the second section that Kincaid asked â€Å"why people like her can’t forget the past†?   She calls the reader’s attention to the British colonial system, and condemns the human trading in the past.   Her ancestors, she said, were dragged to Antigua as chained slaves.   According to Kincaid, slavery will never be forgotten because institutional reminders remained in the island.   The Barclays bank is an example of trading firm that made its fortunes from bartering humans like they were goods. After amassing wealth through the sale of slaves, the Barclays went into banking and continues to be prosperous up until the present.   What’s more ironic to Kincaid is the fact that Barclays is a major financial institution in Antigua that provides loans and fundings to the descendants of the slaves they traded years ago.   While the slaves made them rich, it is their descendants who are making Barclays continue to be rich. How to cite A Small Place, Papers

Cloning The New Trend Of The Century free essay sample

Cloning: The New Trend Of The Century? Essay, Research Paper Cloning: The New Trend of the Century? # 8220 ; Any find that touches upon human creative activity is non merely a affair of scientific enquiry, it is a affair of morality and spiritualty every bit good # 8230 ; Each human life is alone, born of a miracle that reaches beyond research lab scientific discipline # 8230 ; # 8221 ; . This was printed on March 10, 1997 in Time Magazine in an article covering with the controversial topic of cloning. Cloning is the production of one or more single workss or animate beings that are genetically indistinguishable to another works or animate being. Two really different processs have been referred to as # 8220 ; cloning # 8221 ; : Embryo cloning and Adult DNA cloning ( # 8221 ; Cloning # 8221 ; ) . Religious and political associations lead the battle against Adult DNA cloning because of the ethical issues involved with this type of engineering. Cloning will impede the development of society into the following millenary. We will write a custom essay sample on Cloning The New Trend Of The Century or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Cloning creates several controversial issues in society. A major issue associated with cloning is the exponential addition in population each twelvemonth. By 2024, the jutting population of 11 billion, triples the universe population today. Scientists already estimate that in 2024 production end product by worlds must treble in order to supply for 11 billion people and this figure does non include the cabal of cloned persons ( Bohart 1 ) . Cloning will increase the population vastly, but this is non the lone issue cloning creates in society. Advancing engineering continues to split society on moral issues. The general populace? s sentiment on cloning began to divide when Kyeonghee University I n Korea successfully cloned a homo on December 14, 1998 ( †Ethical† ) . Many people believe that the benefits of cloning outweigh the negatives. These benefits come in the signifier of medical progresss like, the usage of cloned human embryos in research into genetic sciences and genetically related diseases, and their interventions or bars ( †Ethical† ) . However, go oning research into cloning will merely split society and get down an rackety statement affecting moralss. Most scientists admit that big graduated table cloning depletes familial diverseness. The citizens of the universe may finally stop up looking indistinguishable to each other. Our society thrives on individualism and diverseness. Every individual creates their ain personality based on their civilization and background, extinguishing this of import facet of human life hinders progress in society. Cloning besides affects emotional relationships greatly. For illustration, a kid born from grownup DNA cloning from his male parent would be, in consequence, a delayed twin of one of his parents ( # 8221 ; Cloning # 8221 ; ) . This wholly eliminates fond regard to household and depletes the true sense of a wholesome upbringing. Cloning may be a major technological progress, but it has possible to decelerate the growing of world. The negatives decidedly outweigh the positives on this controversial subject. Too many ethical issues originate due to this engineering such as individualism and diverseness. Moral issues merely represent half of the job. The population growing lifting at an unmanageable rate and a split state represent the other half. All of these issues support the fact that cloning will merely stand in the manner of a universe that keeps bettering.

A Definition of Meristematic Tissue in Plant Biology

A Definition of Meristematic Tissue in Plant Biology In plant biology, the term meristematic tissue refers to the living tissues containing undifferentiated cells that are the building blocks of all specialized plant structures. The zone where these cells exist is known as the meristem. This zone contains the cells that actively divide and create specialized structures such as the cambium layer, the buds of leaves and flowers, and the tips of roots and shoots. In essence, the cells within the meristematic tissues are what allow a plant to increase its length and girth.   Meaning of the Term The term  meristem  was coined in  1858 by  Karl Wilhelm von Ngeli  (1817 to 1891) in a book called Contributions to Scientific Botany. The term is adapted from the Greek word  merizein, meaning to divide, a reference to the function of the cells in the meristematic tissue. Characteristics of Meristematic Plant Tissue The cells within the meristem have some unique characteristics: Cells within the meristematic tissues are self-renewing, so that each time they divide, one cell remains identical to the parent while the other can specialize and become part of another plant structure. The meristematic tissue is therefore self-sustaining.  While other plant tissues can be made of both living and dead cells, the meristematic cells are all living and contain a large ratio of dense liquid.When a plant is injured, it is the undifferentiated meristematic cells that are responsible for healing the wounds through the process of becoming specialized.   Types of Meristematic Tissue There are three types of meristematic tissues, categorized according to where they appear in the plant:  apical  (at the tips),  intercalary  (at the middle), and  lateral  (at the sides). The apical meristematic tissues are also known as primary meristematic tissues, because these are what form the main body of the plant, allowing for vertical growth of stems, shoots, and roots.  The primary meristem is what sends a plants shoots reaching for the sky and the roots burrowing into the soil.   Lateral meristems are known as secondary meristematic tissues because they are what is responsible for an increase in girth. The secondary meristematic tissue is what increases the diameter of tree trunks and branches, as well as the tissue that forms bark.   Intercalary meristems occur only in plants that are monocots, a group that includes the grasses and bamboos. Intercalary tissues located at the nodes of these plants allow the stems to regrow. It is intercalary tissue that causes grass leaves to grow back so quickly after being mowed or grazed.  Ã‚   Meristematic Tissue and Galls Galls are abnormal growths occurring on the leaves, twigs, or branches of trees and other plants. They usually occur when any one of about 1500 species of insects and mites interact with meristematic tissues.   Gall-making insects oviposit (lay their eggs) or  feed on the meristematic tissues of  host plants at critical moments.  A gall-making wasp, for example, may lay eggs in plant tissues just as leaves are opening or shoots are lengthening. By interacting with the plants meristematic tissue, the insect takes advantage of a period of active cell division to initiate the formation of a gall. The walls of the gall structure are very strong, providing protection for the larvae feeding on plant tissues within. Galls can also be caused by bacteria or viruses infecting the meristematic tissues.  Galls may be unsightly, even disfiguring, on stems and leaves of plants, but they rarely kill the plant.

Everything You Need To Know About Footnotes

Everything You Need To Know About Footnotes While the rules regarding footnotes vary according to the citation style used, there are two distinct purposes for footnotes:To provide necessary information to text in the form of a citation.To provide supplementary information to text, such as clarifying an idea or expounding on it for further inquiry.Regardless of their purpose, a footnote is usually added to text as a superscript, starting at 1, and with a corresponding number at the bottom of the page (known as the footer) where the citation or additional information is included.See the example below, which shows the superscripted footnote numbers, along with the footnotes and the way they are formatted on the paper. Keep in mind that the gray line is the bottom of the paper, so your footnotes will be printed that close to the end of the page.An example of superscripted footnote numbers.Why are footnotes used?Footnotes are the least intrusive way for an author to provide citations or supplemental information about a topic. In so me cases, such as when using Chicago Style, footnotes are often used instead of in-text citations with a bibliography at the end of the paper. Footnotes allow an author to guide his or her reader to additional information or further study, without disrupting the flow of the sentence.Another great use of footnotes is to define or explain a word or idea that might require further explanation to a general audience. A definition or explanation can be provided within the footnote without any visual or logical disruption in the text.Style guides and footnotesThe Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) requires the use of footnotes instead of in-text citations. Other styles, such as the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA) also allow the use of footnotes. However, while CMS requires footnotes for citations and supplemental information, APA and MLA suggest footnote use for supplemental information only.Modern Language Associations (MLA) rules regarding fo otnote useBelow are the rules regarding footnote use in MLA style, taken from the Purdue Online Writing Lab.MLA discourages extensive use of explanatory or digressive notes.MLA Style does, however, allow you to use endnotes or footnotes for bibliographic notes, which refer to other publications your readers may consult.Following are some examples:See Blackmur, especially chapters 3 and 4, for an insightful analysis of this trend.On the problems related to repressed memory recovery, see Wollens 120-35; for a contrasting view, see Pyle 43; Johnson, Hull, Snyder 21-35; Krieg 78-91.Several other studies point to this same conclusion. See Johnson and Hull 45-79, Kather 23-31, Krieg 50-57.Or, you can also use endnotes/footnotes for occasional explanatory notes (also known as content notes), which refers to brief additional information that might be too digressive for the main text:In a 1998 interview, she reiterated this point even more strongly: I am an artist, not a politician! (Weller 124).MLA style has a few additional rules concerning footnote use:For footnotes placed in dependent clauses, such as this one,1 add the number after the comma.Footnotes should follow the period at the end of a sentence.2The only exception to a footnote following the punctuation would be this one3- the dash. When a dash is used as punctuation following a word, the footnote connected to that word should come before it.American Psychological Associations (APA) rules regarding footnote useAPA style discourages the use of footnotes and endnotes, according to the Purdue Online Writing Lab, as detailed below.APA does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes because they are often expensive for publishers to reproduce. However, if explanatory notes still prove necessary to your document, APA details the use of two types of footnotes: content and copyright. When using either type of footnote, insert a number formatted in superscript following almost any punctuation mark.Footnote numbe rs should not follow dashes ( - ), and if they appear in a sentence in parentheses, the footnote number should be inserted within the parentheses.Scientists examined- over several years1- the fossilized remains of the wooly-wooly yak.2(These have now been transferred to the Chauan Museum.3).Also keep in mind, when using the footnote function in a word-processing program like Microsoft Word, place all footnotes at the bottom of the page on which they appear. Footnotes may also appear on the final page of your document (usually this is after the References page). Center the word Footnotes at the top of the page. Indent five spaces on the first line of each footnote. Then, follow normal paragraph spacing rules. Double-space throughout:1 While the method of examination for the wooly-wooly yak provides important insights to this research, this document does not focus on this particular species.Chicago Manual of Style rules regarding footnote useThe Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) uses foo tnotes as the primary way to cite sources. While in-text citations can be used, footnotes are most typical for this style. As with MLA, the footnotes should follow the punctuation unless the punctuation is a dash. There are more specific rules regarding footnote placement and numbering for this style that can be found the Purdue Online Writing Lab.Footnote examples for all style guidesScientists have discovered varied lifeforms in this habitat.6Im allergic to shellfish,7 so lets not order the shrimp.For years, scholars have studied the book carefully8- a fact that suggests there has been much effort put into understanding it.